=encoding utf8

=head1 TITLE

DRAFT: Synopsis 32: Setting Library - Containers.pod

=head1 AUTHORS

    Rod Adams <rod@rodadams.net>
    Larry Wall <larry@wall.org>
    Aaron Sherman <ajs@ajs.com>
    Mark Stosberg <mark@summersault.com>
    Carl Mäsak <cmasak@gmail.com>
    Moritz Lenz <moritz@faui2k3.org>
    Tim Nelson <wayland@wayland.id.au>

=head1 VERSION

    Created: 19 Feb 2009 extracted from S29-functions.pod

    Last Modified: 24 Feb 2014
    Version: 47

If you read the HTML version, it is generated from the Pod in the specs
repository under
L<https://github.com/perl6/specs/blob/master/S32-setting-library/Containers.pod>
so edit it there in the git repository if you would like to make changes.

=head1 Function Roles

=head2 Positional

    role Positional {...}

The C<Positional> role implies the ability to support C<< postcircumfix:<[ ]> >>.

=head2 Associative

    role Associative {...}

The C<Associative> role implies the ability to support C<< postcircumfix:<{ }> >>.

=over

=item cat

 multi cat( **@list --> Cat )

C<cat> reads arrays serially rather than in parallel as C<zip> does. It
returns all of the elements of the containers that were passed to it
like so:

 cat(@a;@b;@c);

Typically, you could just write C<(@a,@b,@c)>, but sometimes
it's nice to be explicit about that:

 @foo := [[1,2,3],[4,5,6]]; say cat(||@foo); # 1,2,3,4,5,6

In addition, a C<Cat> in item context emulates the C<Str> interface lazily.

[Conjecture: Cats should maybe just do the lazy strings, and leave flattening
to other operators.]

=item roundrobin

 multi roundrobin( **@list --> Parcel )

C<roundrobin> is very similar to C<zip>.  The difference is that
C<roundrobin> will not stop on lists that run out of elements but
simply skip any undefined value:

 my @a = 1;
 my @b = 1..2;
 my @c = 1..3;
 for roundrobin( @a; @b; @c ) -> $x { ... }

will get the following values for C<$x>: C<1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3>

=item zip

 multi zip ( **@list --> Parcel of Parcel )
 multi infix:<Z> ( **@list --> Parcel of Parcel )

zip takes any number of arrays and returns one tuple for every index.
This is easier to read in an example:

 for zip(@a;@b;@c) -> $nth_a, $nth_b, $nth_c {
   ...
 }

Mnemonic: the input arrays are "zipped" up like a zipper.

The C<zip> function defaults to stopping as soon as any of its lists
is exhausted.  This behavior may be modified by conceptually extending
any short list using C<*>, which replicates the final element.

If all lists are potentially infinite, an evaluation in C<eager>
context will automatically fail as soon as it can be known that all
sublists in the control of iterators of infinite extent, such as
indefinite ranges or arbitrary replication.  If it can be known at
compile time, a compile-time error results.

C<Z> is an infix equivalent for zip:

 for @a Z @b Z @c -> $a, $b, $c {...}

In lol context a list of C<List> is returned instead of a flat list.

=back

=head2 List

The following are defined in the C<List> class:

    class List does Positional {...}

=over

=item new

 multi method new(*@args --> List )

Constructs an C<List> that can visit all iterable elements of all the arguments.

=item list

 sub list(*@args --> List )

Constructs a C<List> that can visit all iterable elements of all the arguments.

=item cat

 multi cat ( @values --> Cat )

Returns a C<Cat> object, a concatenated version of the list that does the C<Str>
interface, but generates the string lazily to the extent permitted
by the pattern of access to the string.  Its two primary uses are
matching against an array of strings and doing the equivalent of a
C<join('')>, except that C<join> is always eager.  However, a C<Cat>
in an interpolative context is also effectively eager, since the
interpolator needs to know the string length.  List context is lazy,
though, so a C<cat> of a C<cat> is also lazy, and in fact, you just
get a flat cat because C<cat> in a list context is a no-op.  The C<Cat>
interface also lets you interrogate the object at a particular string
position without actually stringifying the element; the regex engine
can make use of this to match a tree node, for instance, without
serializing the entire subtree.

Accessing a filehandle as both a filehandle and as a C<Cat> is undefined,
because lazy objects are not required to be as lazy as possible, but may
instead choose to precalculate values in semi-eager batches to maximize
cache hits.

=item classify

 multi method classify ( @values: &mapper --> Hash )
 multi method classify ( @values: %mapper --> Hash )
 multi method classify ( @values: @mapper --> Hash )
 multi classify ( &mapper, *@values --> Hash )
 multi classify ( %mapper, *@values --> Hash )
 multi classify ( @mapper, *@values --> Hash )

C<classify> transforms a finite list or array of values into a hash
representing the classification of those values according to a mapper;
each hash key represents the classification for one or more of the
incoming list values, and the corresponding hash value contains
an array of those list values classified by the mapper into the category
of the associated key.  For example:

  @list = (1, 2, 3, 4);
  (:@even, :@odd) := @list.classify: { $_ % 2 ?? 'odd' !! 'even' };
  (:@even, :@odd) := classify { $_ % 2 ?? 'odd' !! 'even' }, @list; # same

In this example, @even will contain all even numbers from C<@list>
and C<@odd> will contain all odd numbers from C<@list>.  Please note that
for performance reasons, an implementation is free to C<bind> values to the
resulting arrays.  So you should consider these arrays to be immutable.

To simply transform a list into a hash of arrays:

  %cars_by_color := @cars.classify: { .color };
  %cars_by_color := classify { .color }, @cars; # same
  red_car_owners(%cars_by_color<red>.map:{.owner});

A mapper may be any unary function, hash, or array.
Values that have no mapping will be classified under an undefined
failure key (whatever is returned by the mapper in use).  [Conjecture:
if a hash comes with a default value, it can map anything.]

C<classify> always assumes that the mapper returns a single value.  However,
this may also be a L<Parcel> to indicate a multi-level classification.  In
such a case, only the classification of the lowest level, will actually yield
a Hash of Lists.  All higher up classifications, will necessarily always be a
Hash of Hashes.  Please note that all Parcels must have the same number of
elements.

To categorize values into multiple categories, see C<categorize>.

=item categorize

 multi method categorize ( @values: &mapper --> Hash )
 multi method categorize ( @values: %mapper --> Hash )
 multi method categorize ( @values: @mapper --> Hash )
 multi categorize ( &mapper, *@values --> Hash )
 multi categorize ( %mapper, *@values --> Hash )
 multi categorize ( @mapper, *@values --> Hash )

Like C<classify>, C<categorize> transforms a finite list or array of values
into a hash representing the categorizations of those
values according to a mapper; each hash key represents one possible
categorization for one or more of the incoming list values, and
the corresponding hash value contains an array of those list values
categorized by the mapper into the category of the associated key.
Please note that for performance reasons, an implementation is free to C<bind>
values to the resulting arrays.  So you should consider these arrays to be
immutable.

Unlike C<classify>, C<categorize> always assumes that the return
value of the mapper is a list of categories that are appropriate to
the current value.  Hence, if the mapper returns C<()>, the value
is discarded rather than being stored under any key.  On the
other hand, if the mapper returns a list of categories, the value in
question will be pushed into multiple hash locations (while C<classify>
would merely make a key out of the list returned from the mapper).  However, a
category may also be a L<Parcel> to indicate a multi-level categorization.  In
such a case, only the categorization of the lowest level, will actually yield
a Hash of Lists.  All higher up categorizations, will necessarily always be a
Hash of Hashes.  Please note that all Parcels must have the same number of
elements.

=item grep

 multi method grep ( @values: Matcher $test --> List )
 multi grep ( Matcher $test, *@values --> List )

C<grep> takes a list or array of values and returns a lazily evaluated
list comprised of all of the values from the original list for which
the C<$test> smart-matches as true.

Here is an example of its use:

 @friends = @coworkers.grep: { .is_friend };
 @friends = grep { .is_friend }, @coworkers; # same

This takes the array C<@coworkers>, checks every element to see
which ones return true for the C<.is_friend> method, and returns
the resulting list to store into C<@friends>.

Note that, unlike in Perl 5, a comma is required after the C<Matcher>
in the multi form.

Note that C<grep> is an implicit loop, so C<next> and C<last> without
an argument will iterate or terminate the C<grep> itself, not some
loop surrounding the statement containing the C<grep>.  Use a label
if you mean the other thing.

=item first

 multi method first ( @values: Matcher $test --> Parcel )
 multi first ( Matcher $test, *@values --> Parcel )

C<first> searches exactly like C<grep> but returns only the first matching value, or C<Nil>
if not found.

=item pick

 multi method pick ( @values: Int $num = 1 --> Any )
 multi method pick ( @values: Whatever --> Any )
 multi pick ( Int $num, *@values --> Any )
 multi pick ( Whatever, *@values --> Any )

C<pick> takes a list or array of values and returns a random
selection of elements from the list (without replacement;
see C<roll> for dice roll aka replacement semantics).  If C<*>
is specified as the number (or if the number of elements in
the list is less than the specified number), all the available
elements are returned in random order:

    @team = @volunteers.pick(5);
    @shuffled = @deck.pick(*);

Due to the normal semantics of returning a C<Parcel>, a pick of a
single element may be used as an item without requiring C<.[0]>.

=item roll

 multi method roll ( @values: Int $num = 1 --> Any )
 multi method roll ( @values: Whatever --> Any )
 multi roll ( Int $num, *@values --> Any )
 multi roll ( Whatever, *@values --> Any )

C<roll> takes a list or array of values and returns a random selection
of elements from the list, like rolling N independent dice, where
each list element corresponds to one side of your dice.  This is also known
as "pick with replacement", that is, like pulling one marble out of
bag and putting it back, and doing this N times; see C<pick> for the
non-replacement semantics.  If C<*> is specified as the number, C<*>
provides an infinite list of random choices from C<@values>:

    @byte = (0,1).roll(8);                   # 8d2
    for (1..20).roll(*) -> $die_roll { ... } # 1d20 xx *

Due to the normal semantics of returning a C<Parcel>, a roll of a
single element may be used as an item without requiring C<.[0]>.

Note that C<roll 1, 6> is not the same as a 1d6, but always returns
C<6> as a degenerate one-sided die.  Use C<roll 1, 1..6> to simulate a six-sided die.

=item join

 multi method join ( @values: Str $separator = '' --> Str )
 multi join ( Str $separator = '', *@values --> Str )

C<join> returns a single string comprised of all of the elements
of C<@values>, separated by C<$separator>.

Given an empty list, C<join> returns the empty string.

The separator defaults to the null string.  To join with space,
just coerce to C<Str>.

=item map

 multi method map ( @values: Code *&expression --> List of Parcel )
 multi map ( Code $expression, *@values --> List of Parcel )
 multi map ( Code $expression --> List of Parcel )

C<map> returns a lazily evaluated list which is comprised of
the return value of the expression, evaluated once for every
one of the C<@values> that are passed in.

If the expression returns no values or multiple values, then the
resulting list may not be the same length as the number of values
that were passed.

The actual return value is a multislice containing one slice per
map iteration.  In most contexts these slices are flattened into a
single list.

Note that C<map> is an implicit loop, so C<next> and C<last> without
an argument will iterate or terminate the C<map> itself, not some
loop surrounding the statement containing the C<map>.  Use a label
if you mean the other thing.

In some situations, specifically with concurrent processes, the return
values of a C<map> may not directly relate to a list of values: in that
case it is possible to specify a map with just a C<Whatever>:

  map {                    # actual implementation of Channel.list
      winner $self {
          more * { $_ }
          done * { last }
      }
  }, *;

This effectively becomes a lazy loop returning values until it is exited with
C<last>.  This may be a cheaper alternative to a C<gather>, C<loop>, C<take>
setup.

=item duckmap

 multi method duckmap ( @values: Code *&expression --> List of Parcel )
 multi duckmap ( Code $expression, *@values --> List of Parcel )

Like C<map>, C<duckmap> evaluates the expression for each of the
values that is passed in.  Unlike C<map>, if the evaluation produces
an undefined value, a failover looks to see if this element actually
contains subelements, and if so, reapplies the duckmap recursively,
returning the structured result for that element, so that the
structure of the original is (largely) retained in the result.
Unlike C<deepmap>, it does not guarantee the same structure, since
the mapping expression takes precedence over structure in cases where
either would succeed.

Because C<duckmap> is defined as a recursive implicit loop, loop
controls apply only to the current level of the tree.

=item deepmap

 multi method deepmap ( @values: Code *&expression --> List of Parcel )
 multi deepmap ( Code $expression, *@values --> List of Parcel )

Like C<map> and C<duckmap>, C<deepmap> evaluates the expression for
each of the values you give it.  Unlike C<map> and C<duckmap>, an
element is considered a value only if it does not do the C<Iterable>
role.  If the element is iterable, the algorithm recurses to produce
an identical structure to its input.  Elements that are not iterable
are considered leaf values and mapped through the supplied expression.

Because C<deepmap> is defined as a recursive implicit loop, loop
controls apply only to the current level of the tree.

=item reduce

 multi method reduce ( @values: Code *&expression --> Item )
 multi reduce ( Code $expression ;; *@values --> Item ) {
   my $res;
   for @values -> $cur {
     FIRST {$res = $cur; next;}
     $res = &$expression($res, $cur);
   }
   $res;
 }

Note that C<reduce> is an implicit loop, so C<next> and C<last> without
an argument will iterate or terminate the C<reduce> itself, not some
loop surrounding the statement containing the C<reduce>.  Use a label
if you mean the other thing.


=item reverse

 multi method reverse ( @values: --> List ) is export
 multi reverse ( *@values --> List ) {
    gather {
        1 while take pop @values;
    }
 }

Note that strings are now reversed with C<flip>.

=item rotate

 multi method rotate ( @values is copy: Int $n = 1 --> List ) is export

Produces a new list with the same elements as the old list,
rotated by the specified amount.  See Array::rotate for more
info.

=item sort

 multi method sort( @values: *&by --> Array )
 multi method sort( @values: Ordering @by --> Array )
 multi method sort( @values: Ordering $by = &infix:<cmp> --> Array )

 multi sort( Ordering @by,  *@values --> List )
 multi sort( Ordering $by, *@values --> List )

Returns C<@values> sorted, using criteria C<$by> or C<@by> for
comparisons. C<@by> differs from C<$by> in that each criterion is
applied, in order, until a non-zero (tie) result is achieved.

If C<$by> is a code object of arity zero or one, it is applied on each item
of C<@values>, and C<@values> is sorted by comparing the result values with
C<< &infix:<cmp> >> (Schwartzian Transform).

C<Ordering> is as described in L<S29/Type Declarations>.  Any
C<Ordering> may receive either or both of the mixins C<descending>
and C<canon(Code $how)> to reverse the order of sort, or
to adjust the case, sign, or other order sensitivity of C<cmp>.
(Mixins are applied to values using C<but>.)  If a C<Signature>
is used as an C<Ordering> then sort-specific traits such as C<is
canon($how)> are allowed on the positional elements.

If all criteria are exhausted when comparing two elements, sort should
return them in the same relative order they had in C<@values>.

To sort an array in place use the C<.=sort> mutator form.

See L<http://www.nntp.perl.org/group/perl.perl6.language/16578>
for more details and examples (with C<is insensitive> meaning
C<is canonicalized(&lc)>.)

=item uniq

 multi method uniq(List:D: --> List:D, :&as)

 multi sub uniq(*@values --> List:D, :&as)

Returns a list of unique values from the invocant/argument list, such
that only the first occurrence of each duplicated value remains in the
result list. C<uniq> uses C<< &infix:<===> >> semantics to compare whether
two objects are the same. The order of the original list is preserved even as
duplicates are removed.

    say <a a b b b c c>.uniq    # a b c
    say <a b b c c b a>.uniq    # a b c

(Use C<squish> instead if you know the input is sorted such that identical
objects are adjacent.)

The optional C<:as> parameter allows you to normalize/canonicalize the elements
before uniq-ing. The values are transformed for the purposes of comparison, but
it's still the original values that make it to the result list:

    say <a A B b c b C>.uniq(:as(&lc))          # a B c

This makes it possible to effectively compare with other comparison operators,
too. For example, if you want to compare with C< infix:<==> > semantics, this
might work for you:

    say +uniq [100, 100e0, 200/2], :as(*.Num)   # 1

=item squish

 multi method squish(List:D: --> List:D, :&as)

 multi sub squish(*@values --> List:D, :&as)

Returns a list of values from the invocant/argument list where runs
of more than one value are replaced with only the first instance.
Like C<uniq>, C<squish> uses C<< &infix:<===> >> semantics to compare
whether two objects are the same. Unlike C<uniq>, this function only
removes adjacent duplicates; identical values further apart are still
kept. The order of the original list is preserved even as duplicates
are removed.

    say <a a b b b c c>.squish  # a b c
    say <a b b c c b a>.squish  # a b c b a

The optional C< :as > parameter, just like with C< uniq >, allows values to be
temporarily transformed before comparison.

=item min

 multi method min( @values: *&by --> Any )
 multi method min( @values: Ordering @by --> Any )
 multi method min( @values: Ordering $by = &infix:<cmp> --> Any )

 multi min( *@values, Ordering :@by --> Any )
 multi min( *@values, Ordering :$by --> Any )

Returns the earliest (i.e., lowest index) minimum element
of C<@values> , using criteria C<$by> or C<@by> for
comparisons. C<@by> differs from C<$by> in that each criterion
is applied, in order, until a non-zero (tie) result is achieved.

C<Ordering> is as described in L<S29/Type Declarations>.  Any
C<Ordering> may receive the mixin C<canonicalized(Code $how)> to
adjust the case, sign, or other order sensitivity of C<cmp>.
(Mixins are applied to values using C<but>.)  If a C<Signature>
is used as an C<Ordering> then sort-specific traits such as C<is
canonicalized($how)> are allowed on the positional elements.

For a C<min> function that does not require an ordering, see the
C<[min]> reduction operator.

=item max

 multi method max( @values: *&by --> Any )
 multi method max( @values: Ordering @by --> Any )
 multi method max( @values: Ordering $by = &infix:<cmp> --> Any )

 multi max(*@values, Ordering :@by, --> Any )
 multi max(*@values, Ordering :$by, --> Any )

Returns the earliest (i.e., lowest index) maximum element
of C<@values> , using criteria C<$by> or C<@by> for
comparisons. C<@by> differs from C<$by> in that each criterion
is applied, in order, until a non-zero (tie) result is achieved.

C<Ordering> is as described in L<S29/Type Declarations>.  Any
C<Ordering> may receive the mixin C<canonicalized(Code $how)> to
adjust the case, sign, or other order sensitivity of C<cmp>.
(Mixins are applied to values using C<but>.)  If a C<Signature>
is used as an C<Ordering> then sort-specific traits such as C<is
canonicalized($how)> are allowed on the positional elements.

For a C<max> function that does not require an ordering, see the
C<[max]> reduction operator.

=item minmax

 multi method minmax( @values: *&by --> Any )
 multi method minmax( @values: Ordering @by --> Any )
 multi method minmax( @values: Ordering $by = &infix:<cmp> --> Any )

 multi minmax( *@values, Ordering :@by --> Any )
 multi minmax( *@values, Ordering :$by --> Any )

Returns a C<Range> from the minimum element of C<@values> to the maximum
element, using criteria C<$by> or C<@by> for comparisons. C<@by> differs from
C<$by> in that each criterion is applied, in order, until a non-zero (tie)
result is achieved. C<Range> elements in C<@values> are treated as if their
minimum and maximum values were passed individually, except that if the
corresponding C<excludes> flag is set in Range, the excludes flag is also set
in the returned C<Range>.

C<Ordering> is as described in L<S29/Type Declarations>.  Any
C<Ordering> may receive the mixin C<canonicalized(Code $how)> to
adjust the case, sign, or other order sensitivity of C<cmp>.
(Mixins are applied to values using C<but>.)  If a C<Signature>
is used as an C<Ordering> then sort-specific traits such as C<is
canonicalized($how)> are allowed on the positional elements.

For a C<minmax> function that does not require an ordering, see the
C<[minmax]> reduction operator.

=item any

 multi method any( @values: --> Junction )
 multi any( *@values --> Junction ) is export

Returns a junction with all the values of the list C<|>-ed together. The
junction will only match against another value if at least one of the
values in the list matches.

=item all

 multi method all( @values: --> Junction )
 multi all( *@values --> Junction ) is export

Returns a junction with all the values of the list C<&>-ed together. The
junction will only match against another value if all of the values in the
list match.

=item one

 multi method one( @values: --> Junction )
 multi one( *@values --> Junction ) is export

Returns a junction with all the values of the list C<^>-ed together. The
junction will only match against another value if exactly one of the values
in the list matches.

=item none

 multi method none( @values: --> Junction )
 multi none( *@values --> Junction ) is export

Returns a junction which will only match against another value if none of
the values in the list matches.

=item comb

 multi method comb ( Regex $matcher, Int $limit = * )

Treats the list as a string (by simply C<join>ing them together), and calls
C<.comb> on that string with the same parameters. See C<Str::comb>.

=item combinations

 multi method combinations ( Int $of )
 multi method combinations ( Range $of = 0 .. * )
 multi combinations ( $n, $k )

Returns all combinations of the list taken N at a time (specified
by the C<$of> parameter).  If the range option is taken, then the
range is iterated, and for each integer N in the range, appends all
combinations taken N at a time to the resulting list.  If the max of
the range is greater than the size of the list, iteration stops at
the size of the list.  Hence, if the default of C<0..*> is taken, the
first return value will be an empty array, and the final return value
will be an array containing every value in the list.  The return value
is a list of (presumably immutable) array values.  (Note: When used
on actual sets and other iterable structures, specialized versions of
this method are allowed to bypass turning it into a list first.  Also,
the return values are allowed to be specialized to any non-flattening
container, so that subsets of sets can actually be a set of sets.
If the ordering of the input doesn't matter, neither does the ordering
of the subsets.)

Note that, without an argument, the first returned combination will
always be the empty list, and the last combination will always
be the entire list.

It is erroneous to ask for the combinations of any infinite list.
The compiler is allowed to complain if it notices, however.

The functional form assumes it is working on a list of integers C<^$n> taken C<$k> at a time.

=item permutations

 multi method permutations ( )
 multi permutations ( $n )

Permutes the values of the list, returning the permutations as a
list of (presumably immutable) array values.  (Types such as C<Range>
are converted to a list of individual values before permuting them.)

The functional form assumes it is working on a list of integers C<^$n>.

=back

=head2 Array

All these methods are defined in the C<Array> role/class.

    role Array does List {...}

=over

=item new 

 multi method new(*@args --> Array )

Constructs a new C<Array> containing the arguments passed to C<new>.

=item shape

 method shape (@array: --> Parcel ) is export

Returns the declared shape of the array, as described in S09.

=item end

 method end (@array: --> Any ) is export

Returns the final subscript of the first dimension; for a one-dimensional
array this simply the index of the final element.  For fixed dimensions
this is the declared maximum subscript.  For non-fixed dimensions (undeclared
or explicitly declared with C<*>), the index of the actual last element is used.
So that the degenerate case of an empty range works correctly, C<-1> is returned
if the array is empty.  (If you actually try to index with C<-1>, you'll get a
failure.)

=item elems

 method elems (@array: --> Int ) is export

Returns the length of the array counted in elements.

=item delete (DEPRECATED)

The "delete" method is considered to be a deprecated internal method: the
normal way to mark an element as deleted, is to apply the C<:delete> adverb
to a subscripting operation.

=item :delete

This adverb may be applied to any subscripting operation.  The operation
returns the elements normally, but reads them out destructively.

=item exists (DEPRECATED)

The "exists" method is considered to be a deprecated internal method: the
normal way to test for existence is to apply the C<:exists> adverb to a
subscripting operation.

=item :exists

This adverb may be applied to any subscripting operation.  The
operation returns true if specified element exists.  If a slice
is specified by the subscript, a C<Parcel> of C<Bool> is returned,
which can be processed using junctions.

=item pop

 multi method pop ( @array: --> Scalar ) is export

Remove the last element of C<@array> and return it.
If C<@array> is empty returns a failure.

=item push

 multi method push ( @array: *@values --> Array ) is export

Adds all the values to the end of C<@array> eagerly.  Returns the modified
array.

=item plan

 multi method plan ( @array: *@list --> Array ) is export

Adds the list to the end of C<@array> lazily as a kind of "lazy push".
(That is, the reified part of the array is not modified, but the list
is appended to the not-yet-reified specifications for how to
extend the array on demand, if it is subscripted or shifted beyond the
currently reified elements.)  Returns the modified array.

Note that the semantics of these are different:

    @ro := (0,1,*+*...*);
    @rw.plan(0,1,*+*...*);

In the first case, C<@ro> is bound directly to the list, so its
values are memoized but not considered mutable.  In contrast, C<@rw>
allows modification of any reified element; new elements are merely
initialized to the fibonacci sequence.  If you try to modify a
non-reified element, the array will be reified to that point before
the modification is attempted.

For all external purposes, the array considers that its plan is
part of the array.  If you ask for C<.elems>, for instance, it will
try to reify the entire array, which might take a long time in the
case of infinite arrays (though a list may return C<Inf> if it can
determine this).  Methods such as C<.splice> can refer to the rest of
the list in the abstract, and need only reify those elements necessary
to perform the operation in question.  (Hence, there is no need for
an C<.unplan> method, since the plan of an array may be thrown away
by using C<splice> without the risk of memory exhaustion.)

=item rotate

 multi method rotate ( @array is copy: Int $n = 1, Int *@n --> Array ) is export

Produces a new array with the same elements as the old array,
rotated by the specified amount.  A positive rotation of 1 is defined as:

    @array.push(@array.shift);

A negative rotation of 1 is defined as:

    @array.unshift(@array.pop);

If the magnitude of C<$n> is larger than the number of elements,
the rotational semantics must be equivalent to doing:

    @array.rotate(sign($n)) for ^abs($n)

The new array to be returned contains nothing but aliases for
the old array's elements; however, you can use this to get
any of three different semantic behaviors:

    @a.=rotate       # @a is rotated in place
    @b = @a.rotate   # @b contains copied elements of rotated @a
    @b := @a.rotate  # @b contains aliased elements of rotated @a

If additional rotations are specified via the slurpy, they are
applied to subdimensions of multidimensional arrays.  (To perform
a flat rotation on a shaped array requires flattening to a list
and rotating that instead.)

=item shift

 multi method shift ( @array: --> Scalar ) is export

Remove the first element from C<@array> and return it.
If C<@array> is empty returns a failure.

=item splice

 multi method splice( @array is rw: $offset = 0, $size = Inf, *@values --> Any ) is export

C<splice> fills many niches in array-management, but its fundamental behavior
is to remove zero or more elements from an array and replace them with a
new (and potentially empty) list. This operation can shorten or lengthen
the target array.

C<$offset> is the index of the array element to start with. A WhateverCode
whose argument is the number of elements in the C<@array> may also be used.

C<$size> is the number of elements to remove from C<@array>. A WhateverCode
similar to C<$offset> may be used instead (note that this specifies a position,
not an actual number of elements to remove).

The slurpy list of values (if any) is then inserted at C<$offset>.

Calling splice with a traditional parameter list, you must define C<$offset>
and C<$size> if you wish to pass a replacement list of values. To avoid
having to pass these otherwise optional parameters, use the piping operator(s):

 splice(@array,10) <== 1..*;

which replaces C<@array[10]> and all subsequent elements with an infinite
sequence starting at C<1>.

If C<@array> is multidimensional, C<splice> operates only on the first
dimension, and works with Array References.

C<splice> returns a C<Parcel> of the deleted elements, which behaves as
expected in either list or item context.

C<$offset> and C<$size> will be treated as C<Int>. The function fails if
either parameter is negative, or undefined.

Either of C<$offset> or C<$size> may be specified relative to the length of the
array using a WhateverCode whose argument will be the number of elements in
the array.

While it is illegal for the offset to be larger than the size of
the array, it is allowed for the final position to be off the end of the array;
in this case the entire rest of the array is spliced, whatever is available.

=item unshift

 multi method unshift ( @array: *@values --> Array ) is export

C<unshift> adds the values onto the start of the C<@array> and
returns the modified array.

=item keys

=item kv

=item pairs

=item values

 multi method keys   ( @array: ) is export
 multi method kv     ( @array: ) is export
 multi method pairs  ( @array: ) is export
 multi method enums  ( @array: ) is export
 multi method values ( @array: ) is export

Iterates the elements of C<@array>, in order.

What is returned at each element of the iteration varies with function.
C<values> returns the value of the associated element; C<kv> returns
a 2 element list in (index, value) order, C<pairs> a C<Pair(index, value)>.
With C<pairs> the values are references back to the original containers,
while with C<enums> a snapshot of those values is taken.  That is, C<.pairs>
returns a C<PairMap> while C<enums> returns an C<EnumMap>.

If C<@array> is declared to be multi-dimensional, the keys returned may
in fact be slice lists.  (Arrays that are effectively multi-dimensional
by containing other arrays or hashes are treat with their declared
dimensionality, not their effective dimensionality.)

Note that C<kv @array> returns the same as C<zip(^@array; @array)>

=back

=head2 Hash

The following are defined in the C<Hash> class.

    class Hash is EnumMap {...}

=over 4

=item delete (DEPRECATED)

The "delete" method is considered to be a deprecated internal method: the
normal way to remove a key from a hash, is to apply the C<:delete> adverb
to a subscripting operation.

=item :delete

This adverb may be applied to any subscripting operation.  The operation
returns the elements normally, but reads them out destructively.

=item exists (DEPRECATED)

The "exists" method is considered to be a deprecated internal method: the
normal way to test for existence is to apply the C<:exists> adverb to a
subscripting operation.

=item :exists

This adverb may be applied to any subscripting operation.  The
operation returns true if specified element exists.  If a slice
is specified by the subscript, a C<Parcel> of C<Bool> is returned,
which can be processed using junctions.

=item keys

=item kv

=item pairs

=item values

 multi method keys   ( %hash: ) is export
 multi method kv     ( %hash: ) is export
 multi method pairs  ( %hash: ) is export
 multi method enums  ( %hash: ) is export
 multi method values ( %hash: ) is export

Iterates the elements of C<%hash>. The order is implementation dependent
and arbitrary, but will be the same between successive calls to these
functions, as long as C<%hash> doesn't change.

What is returned at each element of the iteration varies with function.
C<keys> only returns the key; C<values> the value; C<kv> returns both as
a 2 element list in (key, value) order, C<pairs> a C<Pair(key, value)>.
With C<pairs> the values are references back to the original containers,
while with C<enums> a snapshot of those values is taken.  That is, C<.pairs>
returns a C<PairMap> while C<enums> returns an C<EnumMap>.

Note that C<kv %hash> returns the same as C<zip(keys %hash; values %hash)>

The lvalue form of C<keys> is no longer supported. Use the C<.buckets>
property instead.

=item any

 multi method any( %hash: --> Junction ) is export

Returns a junction with all the keys of the hash C<|>-ed together. The
junction will only match against another value if at least one of the
keys in the hash matches.

=item all

 multi method all( %hash: --> Junction ) is export

Returns a junction with all the keys of the hash C<&>-ed together. The
junction will only match against another value if all of the keys in the hash
match.

=item one

 multi method one( %hash: --> Junction ) is export

Returns a junction with all the keys of the hash C<^>-ed together. The
junction will only match against another value if exactly one of the keys
in the hash matches.

=item none

 multi method none( %hash: --> Junction ) is export

Returns a junction which will only match against another value if none of
the keys in the hash matches.

=item invert

 multi method invert ( %hash: --> List ) is export {
     map -> $k, $v { $v X=> $k }, %hash.kv;
 }

Produces a backmapping of values to keys, expanding list values
into multiple pairs.  (The C<< X=> >> expands C<$v> if it is a list.)
[NB: this may need refinement to handle keys that do C<Positional>.]

=item push

 multi method push ( %hash: *@values --> Hash ) is export

Like hash assignment insofar as it accepts either C<Pair> objects or
alternating keys and values; also like in that it returns the new hash.
However, unlike assignment, when a duplicate key is detected,
C<push> coerces the colliding entry's value to an
array and pushes the C<Pair>'s value onto that array.  Hence to invert
a hash containing duplicate values without losing (associative) information,
say:

    %out.push(%in.invert)

Note that when reading the values of such a hash, you must not assume
that all the elements are arrays, since the first instance of a key
merely sets the value without turning it into an array.  (Fortunately,
most list operators create a list of one element when used on an object
that is not a list.)

The intent is that reversing a hash twice produces a hash equivalent
to the original hash.

=back

=head1 Classes and Roles

This documents Buf, List, Range, Set, Bag, Junction, Array, Hash, MixHash, SetHash,
BagHash, Pair, and PairMap.

=head2 Range

    class Range does Positional does Iterable {
        method min() {...}
        method max() {...}
        method bounds() returns Parcel {...}
        method excludes_min {...}
        method excludes_max {...}
        method sample {...}
    }

=head3 Methods

=over

=item sample

    multi method sample ( $range: Int $num = 1 --> List )
    multi method sample ( $range: Whatever --> List )

Returns a lazy list of C<Num> values, taken as linearly distributed samples from
the real interval specified by the invocant.  The argument, if any, indicates
how many samples to return.  Hence, C<(^1).sample> is equivalent to C<rand>, and
C<(^10).sample(*)> is equivalent to C<rand * 10 xx *>.  Ranges with exclusions
other than C<..^> may be less efficient by virtue of having to generate from a larger
interval, throwing out values that are outside the specified interval.

=back

=head2 Buf

    class Buf does Positional does Stringy {...}

A mutable container for an array of integer values in contiguous
memory. The default constructor takes a single array parameter of
integers, the largest of which determines the actual type. So

    Buf.new([:16<c3>, :16<B6>]) # or
    Buf.new([195, 182])         # which is exactly the same

returns a C<buf8> containing two C<uint8> items, while

    Buf.new([256])

returns a C<buf16> which consists of a single C<uint16>.

To explicit request a C<Buf> of a specific size, you can use

    Buf.new([127], :size(16))     # returns a buf16
    Buf.new([1024], :size(8))     # dies, because 1024 >= 2**8

Subtypes with additional constraints like C<utf8> (which only allows valid
UTF-8 byte sequences) exist and provide similar constructors. See
L<S02/Built-In Data Types>.

The array in the constructor used to be slurpy rather than positional, but
the former was deemed to be too inefficient (during signature construction)
for arrays of many elements.

=head3 Methods

=over

=item decode

    method decode($encoding = $?ENC, $nf = $?NF --> Str )

Decode the C<Buf> into a C<Str>. For subtypes that know their encoding (like
C<utf8>, C<utf16>) the C<$encoding> parameter defaults to their intrinsic
encoding instead.

=item  subbuf

    method subbuf($from, $elems?) returns Buf:D

Returns a part of the original buffer, starting from index C<$from> and taking
C<$elems> elements (or to the end of the buffer, if not provided).

The method fails with C<X::OutOfRange> if either C<$from> or C<$elems> are negative. The method also fails if C<$from> is larger than the amount of elemens in the buffer. 

C<$from> may be specified relative to the end of the string using a WhateverCode:

 Buf.new(0x00, 0xFF).subbuf(*-1, 1)

=back


=head3 C<Buf> Operators

Two C<Buf> objects of the same bit size can be compared with the same
operators as strings (in particular C<eq>, C<lt>, C<le>, C<gt>, C<ge>,
C<ne> and C<leg>), but actually compares the stored integers, not
characters. Concatenating two compatible C<Buf>s produces an object of the
most specific type possible, for example C<buf8.new() ~ utf8.new()> results in
a C<buf8> object.

Comparing or concatenating two C<Buf> objects of different bit sizes,
or a C<Buf> that doesn't know its encoding with a C<Str> throws an exception.

Likewise, coercing an encoding-unaware C<Buf> to C<Str> dies.

[Conjecture: The behaviour of encoding-aware C<Buf> objects on string
operators is intentionally not defined yet, because I have no idea what
implications on speed and usage they might have --moritz].

=head2 Enum and Pair

    class Enum does Associative {...}
    class Pair does Associative {...}


A value formed by associating a single key with a single value.
In an C<Enum>, both key and value are immutable.  In a C<Pair>, the
key is immutable but the value mutable.  C<Enum> works identically
to C<Pair> unless you try to modify it.)

=over

=item invert

    multi method invert ( $pair: --> List ) is export {
     $pair.value X=> $pair.key
    }

=back

=head2 EnumMap

    class EnumMap does Associative does Positional {...}

An immutable hash value, viewable either as a (constant) hash or as
a sequence of C<Enum>s.  The keys may not contain duplicates, while
the values may.  The implementation of C<EnumMap> associativity is not
guaranteed to be as efficient as a C<Hash> lookup.  (A brute force
linear scan for the matching key is allowed.  Optimization
is also allowed.)

=head2 PairMap

    class PairMap does Associative does Positional {...}

A hash value that is mutable only in values, differing from a normal
hash insofar as the key set is frozen.  It may be accessed either as
a frozen hash or as a sequence of C<Pair>s. The keys may not contain
duplicates, while the values may.  The implementation of C<PairMap>
associativity is not guaranteed to be as efficient as a C<Hash> lookup.
(A brute force linear scan for the matching key is allowed.  Optimization
to something like an ordered hash is also allowed.)

=head2 Set

    class Set does Associative {...}

A set of unique values or objects.  (Sets are notionally "object
hashes", that is, hashes that allow more than just strings as keys; as
such, they are subject to C<===> equality rather than C<eqv> equality.)
A C<Set> responds to hash operators as if it were a C<Hash of True>.
that is, when used as a hash, a set always treats the set's elements
as the keys of the hash, returning C<True> for existing set elements,
and C<False> for any key not found in the set.

See C<SetHash> for a container that can represent different sets as
keys are added or deleted.

Regardless of their behavior as hashes, set (and bag) types do not
flatten in list context; in the absence of explicit interpolation
instructions (such as use of the C<@> sigil or C<.keys> method)
they are returned as items in list context.  On the other end, the
constructors for set and bag types do not automatically interpolate
the contents of sets or bags (or any other other item type).  They
simply take the list of objects slurped in and turn them into a set.
Together these rules allow us to constructs sets and bags containing
sets and bags as elements.

Use the C<set> composer to construct a set of the elements of the
list.  The empty set may be indicated with either C<set()> or C<∅>
(U+2205 EMPTY SET).

The C<set> composer will very literally make a set of whatever you
pass it; in particular, it will make a set of Pairs if you try to
pass it a list of Pairs (recall that a hash returns a list of Pairs
in list context).  To create a set from the keys of a list of Pairs,
use a C<Set()> coercion rather than a constructor.  Or to create a
set from a hash, use the C<.keys> or C<:k> to extract only the keys.

=over

=item pick

 multi method pick ( $set: Int $num = 1 --> Any )
 multi method pick ( $set: Whatever --> Any )

Works like an ordinary list C<pick>.

=item roll

 multi method roll ( $set: Int $num = 1 --> Any )
 multi method roll ( $set: Whatever --> Any )

Works like an ordinary list C<roll>.

=item combinations

 multi method combinations ( Int $of )
 multi method combinations ( Range $of = 0 .. * )

Works as if the set were turned into a list of elements and then
the combinations were turned back into a list of sets, ordered by
increasing size.  You may, of course, turn that list back into a set of sets.

Note that, without an argument, this method basically calculates the powerset.

=back

=head2 SetHash

A mutable Set container, represented as C<QuantHash[Bool,False]>.

=head2 Bag

    class Bag does Associative {...}

A collection of values or objects that work just like sets, except
that they need not be unique.  The count of each value or object is
represented by an associative mapping from each key value/object to its
replication number.  The C<.total> method returns the sum of all
replication values.  The C<.minpairs> and C<.maxpairs> methods return the
pairs with the minimum and maximum replication number.

Sets and bags do not flatten into list context, nor do the constructors
interpolate items passed to them, even if they look like sets or bags.
(To create a bag from a list of Pairs or a hash, use a C<Bag()> coercion
rather than a constructor.)

=over

=item pick

 multi method pick ( $bag: Int $num = 1 --> Any )
 multi method pick ( $bag: Whatever --> Any )
 multi method pickpairs ( $bag: Int $num = 1 --> Pairs )
 multi method pickpairs ( $bag: Whatever --> Pairs )

Like an ordinary list C<pick>, but returns keys of the bag weighted by
values, as if the keys were replicated the number of times indicated
by the corresponding value and then list pick used.  C<BagHash> is the
mutable form of C<Bag>.  A C<Bag> responds to hash operators as if it were
a C<Hash of UInt>.

The underlying metaphor for picking is that you're pulling colored
marbles out a bag.  (For "picking with replacement" see C<roll> instead.)
Picking require tracking the temporary state, so the immutable C<Bag> is
copied to a temporary private C<BagHash>, and the picks are made from that
using the corresponding C<.grab> or C<.grabpairs> method (see below).

Each C<.pick>/C<.pickpairs> invocation maintains its own private state and
has no effect on subsequent C<.pick>/C<.pickpairs> invocations.

The C<.pickpairs> version returns the grabbed values as a list of C<Pair>
objects, whose keys are the keys and whose values are the replication values.

=item roll

 multi method roll ( $bag: Int $num = 1 --> Any )
 multi method roll ( $bag: Whatever --> Any )

Like an ordinary list C<roll>, but returns keys of the bag weighted
by values, as if the keys were replicated the number of times
indicated by the corresponding value and then list C<roll> used.
The underlying metaphor for rolling is that you're throwing C<$num>
dice that are independent of each other, which (in bag terms) is
equivalent to picking a colored marble out your bag and then putting
it back, and doing this C<$num> times.  In dice terms, the number
of marbles corresponds to the number of sides, and the number of
marbles of the same color corresponds to number of sides with the
same color.  (For "picking without replacement" see C<pick> instead.)
Rolling requires no temporary state.

=item kxxv

 method kxxv (-->List)

Returns a list of the keys of the bag, with each key multiplied by its
replication factor (hence the name: .k xx .v).

=back

=head2 BagHash

A mutable C<Bag> container, represented as C<QuantHash[UInt,0]>.

=head2 QuantHash

    role QuantHash[::T, $default = Any] does Mixy does Associative {...}

A C<QuantHash> represents a mutable set of objects, represented as the
keys of a C<Hash>.  When asked to behave as a list it ignores its
C<.values> and returns only C<.keys> (possibly replicated by weight
in the case of bag types).  C<SetHash> and C<BagHash> are derived
from this type, but constrain their hash values to be C<Bool> and
C<UInt>, respectively.  A C<QuantHash> automatically deletes any key
whose corresponding value goes to the default value for the hash.
For any C<QuantHash>, the C<.total> methods returns the current sum
of the values, which the C<QuantHash> must either track or compute
on demand.  Tracking is preferable for efficient implementation of
C<.pick> and C<.grab>.

All standard C<QuantHash> containers have a default value that is false
(such as C<0> or C<''> or C<Nil> or C<Bool::False>), and keep around
only those entries with non-default values, automatically deleting
any entry if its value goes to that (false) default value.

=over

=item grab

 multi method grab ( $bag: Int $num = 1 --> Any )
 multi method grab ( $bag: Whatever --> Any )
 multi method grabpairs ( $bag: Int $num = 1 --> Any )
 multi method grabpairs ( $bag: Whatever --> Any )

Like C<pick>, a C<grab> returns a random selection of elements, weighted
by the values corresponding to each key.  Unlike C<pick>, it works only
on mutable structures.  Use of C<grab> on an immutable structure results
in an exception (much like C<push> would).
Since a C<QuantHash>, unlike a C<Set> or C<Bag>, is mutable, C<.grab>
works directly on the C<QuantHash>, modifying it in place.  (You may use
C<.pick> to treat the C<QuantHash> as immutable; this will copy it and grab
only from the temporary copy.)

Grabbing decrements the grabbed
key's replication value by one (deleting the key when it goes to 0).
By definition, C<.total> of the bag also decreases by one, so the
probabilities stay consistent through subsequent grab operations.

With the C<.grabpairs> version, the replication value of the picked
key is forced immediately to 0, removing all marbles of that color from
the bag, as it were.  Instead of returning keys, returns the grabbed
values as a list of C<Pair> objects, whose keys are the deleted keys
and whose values are the deleted replication values.

=back

=head2 MixHash

A C<QuantHash[Real,0]>; like a C<BagHash> but may have non-integral
weights for use in weighted picking.  Keys with fractional weights
are deleted if they go to 0.  Negative weights are not deleted, but
the implementation may complain if it notices you attempting to use
such a weight.

=head2 Junction

All method calls on junctions autothread because the type provides no public methods.

=over 4

=item !eigenstates

    method !eigenstates (Junction $j: --> Parcel)

Returns an unordered list of the values that constitute the junction (formerly
called C<.values>). It flattens nested junctions of the same type, so
C<(1|(2|3)).eigenstates> returns an arbitrary permutation of the list
C<1, 2, 3>.

Note this is a private method; you must arrange for yourself to be trusted
by the junctions class in order to call it, which probably involves evil
MONKEY_TYPING.

Alternately, the values may be explicitly converted to a set value
using C<.Set> or C<Set()>.  Note, however, that the set of eigenstates
for a C<none> junction defines the values that are *not* there,
so the resulting C<Set> will be the I<complement> to the universe of
values recognized by the junction!  Also note that C<any> and C<all>
junctions represent I<sets> of sets of items, not sets of items.
Since set items are by definition unique, only the C<one> junction
can be unthinkingly mapped to and from a given set.  (This is why we
discourage casual use of the eigenstates as a set.)

=back

=head1 Additions

Please post errors and feedback to perl6-language.  If you are making
a general laundry list, please separate messages by topic.